Erikson, Piaget & Psychology Theories & Concepts Explained

Little Albert Experiment: Watson’s Classical Conditioning Study

The little albert experiment was a 1920 study conducted by psychologist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Rayner at Johns Hopkins University. They conditioned a nine-month-old infant to fear a white rat by repeatedly pairing it with a loud, startling noise — demonstrating that fears can be learned through classical conditioning. The experiment also documented stimulus generalization, showing that...

Havighurst’s 8 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence: Complete Guide with Examples

Havighurst’s developmental tasks of adolescence consist of eight specific milestones that teenagers must master to transition successfully into adulthood. These tasks include achieving emotional independence, developing mature social relationships, and preparing for a career. According to Robert Havighurst, the successful completion of these biological and social milestones leads to happiness and societal acceptance, while falling short can result in difficulty...

Social Identity Theory: Why Your Group Memberships Define Who You Are

Social identity theory is a psychological framework developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner that explains how membership in social groups shapes a person’s self-concept, behavior, and perception of others. The groups we belong to — nationality, religion, sports teams, professions, political parties — actively define how we think about ourselves and how we treat those outside those memberships. Originally...

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage: 9 Key Characteristics with Real-Life Examples

The preoperational stage is Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, spanning roughly ages 2 to 7. It marks the point when children first begin thinking symbolically — using words, drawings, and pretend play to represent the world. That’s a genuine developmental breakthrough. But the preoperational stage also comes with well-documented limitations: egocentrism, centration, static reasoning, and an inability to mentally...

Scaffolding in Psychology: Vygotsky’s ZPD Explained & 7 Techniques That Work

Scaffolding in psychology is a teaching strategy where instructors provide temporary, adjustable support to help learners accomplish tasks just beyond their independent abilities. The scaffolding psychology framework, coined by Jerome Bruner, David Wood, and Gail Ross in 1976, stems from Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)—the gap between what learners can do alone and with guidance. Effective scaffolding includes...

Carol Gilligan’s Ethics of Care: Why Kohlberg’s Moral Stages Got Women Wrong

Gilligan’s ethics of care emerged as a direct challenge to the most influential model of moral development in psychology — and it permanently changed the field. Carol Gilligan, once a student and research collaborator of Lawrence Kohlberg, identified a critical flaw in her mentor’s work: his six-stage framework was built entirely on data from boys and men, then presented as...